Lisa Chew
trephination,
skull, trepanation, trepan, neurosurgery, Hughes, trephine, Fielding, Mellen,
trephanation
Trephination is the oldest medical practice still
currently performed. The procedure
itself involves drilling or otherwise removing a small piece of bone from the
skull without damaging the brain. There
are two main purposes for trephination – medical and mystical. In both ancient and modern times, medical
trephination has been performed to relieve pressure caused by swelling of the
brain as a result of a severe head trauma.
Ancient mystical trephination was used to release evil spirits that were
thought to cause abnormal behaviors, mental illnesses, and headaches. Modern mystical trephination, on the other
hand, is done to increase the volume of brain blood and, thus, restore the
creativity and happiness of childhood.
Therefore, even though trephination is a long-used procedure, its
origins are based on several different systems of beliefs and practices throughout
time.
II. Scope and Purpose of the
System
In ancient times, trephination, a procedure involving the removal of a
small piece of human skull, had both natural and supernatural purposes. Current evidence shows that the procedure
began about 10,000 years ago in Neolithic Europe and Pre-Columbian South
America (Trepanation). The most
numerous and most expertly trepanned skulls of that time have been found in the
area of present-day Peru and Bolivia.
At that time, battles between warring factions were common and often
resulted in head injuries. These
injuries were often inflicted on innocent women and children and were caused by
blows to the head with stone clubs. If
the person was not killed, the injury caused compression of the skull that may
have resulted in abnormal behavior, headaches, and blood clots (Philips). The medical practitioners of the time found
that trephination reduced or completely reversed the symptoms. Trephination was also used in ancient times
to cure mental illness. They believed
that by trepanning the skull, the evil spirits that inhabited a person’s body
could escape and, therefore, the person would be cured (Haeger).
In modern times, there are two
completely different systems of trephination.
The first is medical trephination that is performed by doctors to
relieve pressure of the brain after an injury, such as a head trauma caused by
a car accident. (This type will not be
focused on in this paper because it bears little similarity to the other types
of trephination). The other type of
trephination is done for mystical reasons.
The medical community does not support this type of trephination and,
therefore, the twenty or so living individuals who are known to have this type
of procedure have performed self-trephinations. The purpose of this type of trephination is to increase what is
known as the “bloodbrainvolume” (Mellen).
The supporters in this type of trephination believe that when the skull
fuses as a person ages, one loses one’s natural creativity. They argue that the volume of blood in the
brain is reduced and the brain can no longer pulsate with the heartbeat because
it is confined in the skull. Therefore,
they believe that cutting a small hole in the skull will allow the brain to
pulsate again and increase the volume of the blood in the brain. They believe that the resulting “expanded
consciousness” will cause the person to be more creative, happier, and will
return a depressed person to a normal state (Mellen).
III. Authority Structure
a. Sources and Criteria of
Valid Knowledge
Apparently, the source of the knowledge began with an attempt to cure skull compression wounds inflicted during battle in Peru. The practitioners were either trained surgeons called hampi-camayoc or shaman called sancoyoc (Philips). The surgeons were highly trained and dealt mainly with the head traumas; the shaman were not trained to perform the operation but did so in rituals to release evil spirits from the brain. When the trepanned individuals survived and there was a reduction in their symptoms, the surgeons and shamans took this as a sign that the operation worked and that continuing to do the operation would help other people. The pieces of trepanned skull removed from the patients were thought to have magical powers and were sold for great profit by the surgeons and shaman (Haeger).
In modern times, a Dutch medical student named Bart
Hughes proposed the practice of modern mystical trephination. In the late 60’s, he often used psychoactive
drugs such as LSD and believed that the mind-expanding qualities could be made
permanent through trephination. He
trepanned himself with an electric drill and claims to have immediately felt
the natural high that accompanied an increase in his brain pulsation. He then proceeded to spread his message and
recruit other people to be trepanned (Cridland).
b. Methods of Inquiry
The support for trephination as a
valid procedure comes from both empirical evidence and from the faith of
believers. Evidence of trephination in
ancient people is uncovered through the excavation of burial sites. The archeologists know that the individuals
did not die from the trephination if there is a regrowth of bone called callus
tissue. For example, one researcher
found that in the Yantyo tribe of Peru, 250 of 400 skulls found showed evidence
of callus tissue growth (Haeger).
Another burial site near Cuzco resulted in the discovery that 83% of the
skulls that had undergone trephination showed signs of regeneration
(Fernandez).
Modern mystical trephination is
supported by the faith of the believers and their testimonials about its
helpfulness. The main proponents of
modern mystical trephination are Bart Hughes, the originator, and his two main
disciples, Amanda Fielding and Joseph Mellen.
All three trepanned themselves and crusade to get others, including the
medical community, to respect mystical trephination as a valid procedure for
curing mental illness and increasing creativity (Cridland).
c. Institutions and
Professional Structure
In ancient times, there were two types of people who preformed trephinations – shaman (sancoyoc) and surgeons (hampi-camayoc). The shaman were untrained but believed that they had the ability through God to release the evil demons that plagued other people. If the performed ritual proved to be unsuccessful resulting in the continuation of the symptoms or the person’s death, the shaman would most likely claim that the person was not suitably purified before the ritual or that the demons refused to leave. In fact, a number of skulls have been discovered that were trepanned as many as five times (Philips). Surgeons, on the other hand, were trained as apprentices to other surgeons and learned the proper techniques for the procedure. Trephinations performed by surgeons were actually very successful and most of the patients recovered. In fact, 55-60% of the ancient skulls found show signs of callusing indicating that the patient survived the operation (Trepanation).
Today, the individuals themselves perform mystical trephinations. They use power drills and trephining tools to drill holes in their own heads. It is very dangerous and one man, Joe Mellen, almost killed himself in his first attempt at the procedure (Mellen). The mystical trepanners are not held to any standards and only focus on of the objective of opening a hole in the skull.
According to the International
Trepanation Advocacy Group, trephination has been performed “…on every
continent through every time period and by every race of mankind…” (ITAG). Therefore, it is difficult to do a
chronological history of trephination throughout the ages. There is evidence, however, that
trephination began roughly about 10,000 years ago in both Pre-Columbian South
America and in Neolithic Europe (Trepanation).
In Pre-Columbian South America, researchers believe that there was a
center for trephination in the area that is present-day Peru and Bolivia based
on the number and skill displayed on the trepanned skulls found (Philips). In Europe, archeologists discovered the
earliest trephinations among the skulls of the early Danubians (c. 3000 BC) and
among the “battleaxe” people in areas now part of France (c. 2000 BC). Trepanned skulls have also been found in Scandinavia,
Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Bulgaria dating from the late Bronze Age
(Lisowski). Trephination continued to
be practiced throughout the Iron Age and throughout the era of Greek and Roman
dominance. During Mediaeval times,
there is evidence that trephinations were performed in England, Ireland,
France, Germany, and Italy. Outside of
Europe, there is less evidence of trephination probably attributed to the fact
that “…fewer exhumations have been carried out in these parts…” (Lisowski). In Asia, however, several skulls have been
found that had been operated on during the Bronze Age in Jericho and three Iron
Age skulls in Lachish. Skulls were also
found in Pakistan, Kashmir, and China.
The Ainu people of Hokkaido in northern Japan apparently practiced
trephination as well. Finally, skulls
contemporary with those found in Palestine were discovered in Sakkara and Egypt
(Lisowski).
The first modern mystical
trephination was performed in Holland (Cridland). The others have occurred mainly in England and North America.
This is the real life account of Joseph Mellen’s trephination of his own skull using an electric drill in the spring of 1970. He claims that within four hours he felt his spirits rise until he felt a state of “freedom and serenity” that he claims has been with him ever since (Michell).
Joseph’s then-girlfriend, Amanda Fielding, became so inspired by Joseph’s trephination that she decided to trepan her own skull. Joseph filmed her operation and she called it, Heartbeat in the Brain. The video shows Amanda carefully preparing herself and then drilling a hole in the front of her skull. At the end, blood is pouring down her face but she has a triumphant, blissful look on her face. The film has soft music in the background and interspersed shots of her pet pigeon as “…a symbol of peace and wisdom” (Michell).
a. Emphasis on traditional
authority (5) --- or the testimony of experience (1)
Ancient
medical trephination (3), Ancient mystical trephination (3), Modern medical
trephination (5), Modern mystical trephination (1).
Ancient and modern medical trephinations as well as
ancient mystical trephination are based on the traditional authority of the
procedure. The surgeons and shaman who
performed the operations passed on the techniques to their successors as the
proper way to deal with medical/psychological problems. Modern mystical trephination is based solely
on the testimonies of those that have been trepanned and claims that it helped
them.
b. Centralization of
authority (5)--- or decentralization (individual inquiry) (1)
Ancient
medical trephination (2), Ancient mystical trephination (2), Modern medical
trephination (5), Modern mystical trephination (1).
Ancient medical and mystical trephinations were
performed all over the world with many different procedures and by people with
varying levels of training. At the time
that these operations were originally performed, there was no way to even
communicate between most of the different civilizations. Modern medical trephination has a set
procedure that is learned and followed by all surgeons. Modern mystical trephination is based on
individual inquiry and is performed solely by the interested individuals.
c. Emphasis on invisible
(spiritual) realities (5) ---- or material, earthly ones (1)
Ancient
medical trephination (1), Ancient mystical trephination (5), Modern medical
trephination (1), Modern mystical trephination (5).
Medical trephinations (ancient and modern) are meant
to cure actual medical problems such as the swelling of the brain following a
head trauma. Mystical trephination
(ancient and modern) is meant to cure mental illness, release evil spirits, or
increase creativity.
d. Mainly spiritual/moral objectives (5) ---- or pragmatic aims (1)
Ancient
medical trephination (5), Ancient mystical trephination (5), Modern medical
trephination (5), Modern mystical trephination (5).
All types of trephination are meant to “heal” the
person through either medical or mystical means.
e. Most power or reserved for a divine being (5) --- or realizable in
individuals (1)
Ancient
medical trephination (1), Ancient mystical trephination (1), Modern medical
trephination (1), Modern mystical trephination (1).
The purposes for trephination are realizable in
individuals and do not grant any special powers to the patients. In ancient times, any person suffering from
a real or believed malady could be trepanned.
In modern times, interested individuals can perform mystical
trephination and doctors can perform the procedure on patients with head
trauma. No special powers are necessary
for a person to be trepanned.
VII. Annotated Bibliography
Primary:
Mellen,
Joseph. “Hole in the Head.” Other Scenes Magazine. Nov. 1970.
This is an article written
by a man who was trepanned himself in the 1960’s. It is a useful source because it gives insight into how he came
to be trepanned and his beliefs about why trephination is a useful and important
procedure. A good source about modern
mystical trephination.
Secondary:
Cridland, Timothy Colin.
“Hole in the Head Gang.” Submit! Magazine. Dec. 1993.
This
article discusses the three main figures involved in modern mystical
trephination – Bart Hughes, Joseph Mellen, and Amanda Fielding. It describes how each came to be involved
with the modern trephination movement.
Fernandez, Omar.
“Pre-Columbian Surgery.” Granma Weekly Review. Online. Internet. 29 Oct.
2000.
This
article focuses on the practice of ancient medical and mystical trephination is
Pre-Columbian South America. It was not
particularly useful because the paper was not focused on this particular
area.
Haeger,
Knut. “Trepanation.” Online. Internet. 6 Nov. 2000
Available WWW: http://www.trepan.com/historical/articles/trepan.html
This article is about the main motives for performing ancient and
modern trephinations. It was
particularly useful because it talked about the different purposes for the
procedure including both ancient mystical and ancient medical trephination.
International Trepanation Advocacy Group. “Introduction.” Online. Internet. 6 Nov. 2000.
Available WWW: http://www.trepan.com/introduction/
This
was a useful source because it gave a basic overview of what trephination is
and how it has been practiced over time.
Lisowski, F. P. “Prehistoric
and Early Historic Trepanation.” Online. Internet. 11 Nov. 2000.
Available WWW: http://www.trepan.com/historical/articles/ch52.html
This
is a very useful source because it gives an expanded explanation of
distribution of trephination over time as well as the geographic distribution
of the procedure. The article does a
good job of bringing together researched evidence of trephination found around
the world.
Michell, John. Eccentric
Lives & Peculiar Notions. Harcourt Brace & Company, 1984.
This
book contains a chapter about self-trephination. It deals mainly with modern mystical trephination. It presents the story of how Bart Hughes,
Amanda Fielding, and Joe Mellen came to be involved with each other and the
idea of trephination.
Philips, Chris Ann.
“Pre-Columbian Trephination.” Cyber Museum of Neurosurgery. 1990.
Online. Internet. 29 Oct. 2000.
Available WWW: http://www.neurosurgery.org/cybermuseum/pre20th/treph/trephination.html
This
article looks at how ancient medical trephination began in Pre-Columbian South
America. This article contains several
nice pictures showing ancient skulls that had been trepanned. It was a useful resource although the
article itself is very short.
“Trepanation.” The
Subculture Pages. Online. Internet. 29 Oct. 2000.
Available WWW: http://www.fringeware.com/subcult/Trepanation.html
This
article focuses on how trephination is performed around the world. The article itself was interesting, but it
was most useful because it gave links to other good sites on this topic.