Sarah Janowitz
Religion 195B
Acupuncture
Keywords
Nei Jing meridian
ch'i (qi) Ling Shu
yin yang pulse diagnosis
alternative anesthesia alternative medicine
acupressure American Association for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine (AAAOM)
I. Abstract
Acupuncture,
a holistic health tradition originating in
II. Scope and Purpose of Acupuncture
Acupuncture
is but one branch of a much larger, holistic system of traditional Chinese
medicine. Although, traditionally,
acupuncture was not used alone as a method of treatment, it has grown to that
point today, both in China, where it originated, and in the western hemisphere,
where it is widely accepted as an alternative medical practice (Chow 114). The origins of acupuncture are in
Acupuncturists claim to solve any variety of health problems through acupuncture therapy. The system is based on traditional Chinese beliefs in ch'i, or qi, the life-energy that flows through the body. Traditional acupuncture is based on the system of meridians, the energy, or ch'i, pathways. The system relies on detection of meridian pulses, measuring the flow of ch'i through the meridians. Excess yin or yang, the polar forces of ch'i, cause blockage in the meridians, resulting in an assortment of health problems. The acupuncturist uses needles to release these blockages in the meridians, freeing the flow of ch'i through the body, correcting the health problems. The purpose of this system, in the traditional context, is a holistic approach to health, involving prevention (using pulses to detect early problems), treatment, and therapy.
Acupuncture has found a place alongside modern medicine, making its traditional claims, but, in many cases, proving its ability to function as an effective anesthetic, and treatment for ailments such as migraines, back pain, stress and depression, arthritis, and substance abuse (Hulke).
III. Authority Structure
a.) Sources and Criteria of Valid Knowledge
Acupuncture is a valid science in the sense that it is based on observation and natural experience. It is a science, in so far as it is "understood [as] a body of rules and conceptions, based on experience and derived from it by logical experience, embodied in material achievements and in a fixed form of tradition and carried on by some sort of social organization" (Malinowski 34). It is based on the observation of what works, empirical and rational knowledge of observed results.
The original authoritative source on acupuncture reaches back into ancient Chinese tradition, to the Yellow Emperor, Huang Di, who reigned from 2696 to 2598 BC. The Emperor is responsible for one of the world's first medical texts, Huang Di Nei Jing, The Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic. The text is divided into two parts; the second, the Ling Shu, the Spiritual Pivot, is also called the Canon of Acupuncture since it is the first literature on this medical procedure (Wu, xi). The text, according to one oral legend, developed several thousand years ago when a Chinese warrior noticed that pain in one part of his body subsided after he was wounded with an arrow in another part. The idea was pursued by trial-and-error insertion of needles instead of arrows into different locations on the skin, gradually evolving into a system of not only relieving pain, but curing sickness as well (Whorton 259). Regardless of the truth to this legend, the Ling Shu and the current practice of acupuncture is based on observed success with trial-and-error. The Nei Jing is still the basic reference on acupuncture, and is the foundation of its current developments and practices.
Though the Ling Shu dates back to 2600 BC, it still is a relevant source of knowledge in modern acupuncture therapy. The Chinese continue to study and practice this holistic approach to health through “extensive research in ancient texts” (Salmon 131). Acupuncture continues today, based on this tradition, but evolving, validating itself in the eyes of allopathic tradition, or the modern, international tradition. Dr. Wu Wei-P'ing is a modern practitioner of acupuncture and the president of the Chinese Acupuncture Society. He has written a modern text for students of acupuncture, drawing distinctions between modern theories and the classic tradition. He refers to the ancient doctrines of the Ch'i' and the Ling Shu, but incorporates modern, technical procedures (Wei-P'ing 16).
Dr. Yoshio Manaka, a Japanese practitioner of acupuncture, has faced the same obstacles as Dr. Wei-P’ing. Dr. Manaka recognized the contradictions between Western and Eastern scientific practices, theories and methods, and attempted to resolve ancient tradition into modern science (see Section V) (Manaka xxii). His research acts as conciliatory mediation between the fundamental differences of Eastern and Western world views, and has helped acupuncture become successful and accepted in modern, Western medicine.
There are
also a number of western theories which attempt to account for the success of
acupuncture therapy, without accounting for Eastern theories and
tradition. These modern explanations
validate acupuncture for its observed success, but disregard some of the
ancient concepts (the ch'i, the yin, and the
yang). Modern medical scholars attempt
to explain acupuncture it modern, allopathic medical terms. For example, the needles are thought to
stimulate the nerves, triggering a release of endorphins, the body's natural
pain-relieving chemical (Chow 125).
Regardless of the western explanations, acupuncture maintains its place
as a valid medical tradition in the
b.) Methods of Inquiry
Since acupuncture has maintained its relevance for thousands of years, there are numerous methods of inquiry and approaches to study. The Ling Shu is still the major authoritative text on traditional acupuncture. Since acupuncture has become so accepted in Western tradition, there are the more allopathic approaches to study, accounting for acupuncture’s success in terms of endorphins and nerves. There are also those that attempt to reconcile the two traditions, such as Dr. Wei-P’ing and Dr. Manaka. The “proof” of the system is in observation of its success, regardless of the tradition, millennium, or hemisphere. The method of inquiry and approach to study, however, depend on wholly on the tradition.
All the methods claim to be scientific. Eastern and Western definitions of science, however, are very different. Eastern science is based on a non-reductionist paradigm, or a system of interrelationships (see Section V) (Manaka xiv). Therefore, the scientific method of inquiry involves studying the relationship of the ailment to the whole body’s energy, or ch’i. Western medicine, in contrast, approaches science and medicine from a reductionist view, identifying separate body parts, causes, and cures. The study of acupuncture in Western tradition, than, is a more reductionist approach.
c.) Institutions and Professional Structure
In the
East, acupuncture is studied side by side with Western medicine in respected
medical schools. These medical schools approach medical studies from the same
stance as Dr. Manaka and Dr. Wei-P’ing, reconciling
Eastern and Western traditions. There is
an organized professional structure in
Acupuncturists
are trained throughout the world, and acupuncture is taught as an alternative,
but practical, medical system. Western
research on the tradition has been steady since the 1950s, and these studies
attempt to validate the therapy's observed, proven success in the context of
the international medical tradition.
Established schools, such as the
There are
two acupuncture organizations in
IV. History
The first written record of Yin-Yang, and its association with health dates to the first millennium B.C., in the I Ching, or The Book of Changes. This philosophical text had a profound influence on Chinese medical thought, placing in opposition the Yin and the Yang of energy flow, the Yin identified as negative, dark, cold and feminine and Yang connoted as positive, light, warm, and masculine. Though these pair opposites, found in all living things, carries no actual negative or positive connotation ("any more than a negatively or positively charged ion is bad or good"), later medical studies identified their imbalance as the source of ill-health.
The I Ching also identified the C’hi, or the life energy flowing through the meridians, composed of the Yin and the Yang. The Book of Changes recognizes the 'C'hi' as the "original material substance," or the vital energy of life.
Beside the recognition of the 'C'hi' and the Yin and Yang, Chinese medical thinking is predicated on another major principle of the I Ching, known as the "Five Phases" doctrine. The Five Phases, wood, fire, earth, metal, and water, were actually sub-classifications of the Yin and Yang. The Five Phases were applied to the internal organs, implying complex, interrelationships, with each energy affecting the other. The Five Phases, reacting and balancing the Yin and Yang, affect the flow of 'C'hi', correlate with ailments, pains and health (Chow 116-17).
The I Ching, along with other ancient Chinese medical texts, including the Ling Shu, and more generally, the Nei Ching, were marked by two distinguishing features. First, the Chinese were preoccupied with the careful observation of nature. Secondly, the Chinese approached their observations with an ancient form of the scientific method, following procedural steps of analysis, deduction, and interpretation, scientifically validating and understanding their observations. Acupuncture is based on these features.
V. Representative Examples of Argumentation
Acupuncture is founded on a non-reductionist paradigm. In early texts, such as the Ling Shu, through more modern medical literature, human existence, and in fact, all life forms, are the result of interacting relationships. In this world view, everything exists in a web of relations, and are non-reducible. Early Chinese medical texts, and modern practices, are all based in interrelationships:
Things behaved in particular ways not necessarily because of prior actions or impulsions of other things, but because their position in the ever-moving cyclical universe was such that they were endowed with intrinsic natures which made that behavior inevitable for them. If they did not behave in those particular ways they would lose their relational positions in the whole (which made them what they are), and turn into something other than themselves. They were thus parts in existential dependence upon the whole world-organism. And they reacted upon one another not so much by mechanical impulsion or causation as by a kind of mysterious resonance (Joseph Needham rpt. in Manaka xiv).
Along with this inclusive set of relationships, eastern medicine in non-dualistic in nature. Eastern practitioners of acupuncture do not draw distinctions between the mind and body (Manaka xiv).
This concept places acupuncture and other Eastern traditions in direct conflict with Western, allopathic traditions. In modern western biology, chemistry and medicine, reductionism is a mainstay, reducing all things to their separate parts (atoms, molecules, cells, etc.). As opposed to studying ailments and cures in terms of inclusive relationships:
The basic tactic of natural science is analysis: fragment a phenomenon into its components, analyze each and process in isolation and thereby derive an understanding of the subject . . . Today both scientists and philosophers take ontological reduction for granted. Vitalism is dead. Organisms are “nothing but” atoms, and that is that (Manaka xiv).
Health, in eastern traditions, depends on the even flow of ch’i throughout the entire system. In western traditions, however, health depends on the localized treatment of a specific organ, disregarding the rest of the system.
Acupuncture’s truth and value cannot be completely ignored by Western tradition. The practice, regardless of its contradictory approach, is based on observable success. Whether acupuncture works because of its effects on the ch’i or the endorphins, it has proven success treating everything from addiction problems to headaches. Some Western scientists suggest acupuncture may owe a great deal of its success to the “power of suggestion” over a patient (Whorton 265). However, acupuncture’s universal success as a medical therapy for thousands of years is undeniable.
VI. Suggested Position in Comparative Scales
(1 ----- 10)
a.) Relative emphasis on traditional authority
-------- testimony of experience
Acupuncture is strongly rooted in tradition, and the ancient Ling Shu is still the main authority on the practice. However, its lasting relevance through thousands of years is based on observation of success and testimony of experience. The reason the ancient Eastern tradition of acupuncture has found a place in Western tradition is the testimony of experience. Both tradition and experience are equally important. (5)
b.) Relative centralization of authority -------- or decentralization
In
c.) Relative emphasis on invisible realities
-------- or material, earthly ones
Traditional Chinese acupuncture is based specifically on belief in the invisible life-energy, the ch’i, and its polar forces, the yin and yang. Modern Western students of acupuncture, however, attempt to study acupuncture in terms of concrete, Western medical science. Many acupuncturists, like Dr. Wei-P’ing and Dr. Manaka, reconcile these approaches in their modern study of acupuncture. (5)
d.) Mainly spiritual or moral objectives ------ or pragmatic aims (prediction, healing, etc.)
Acupuncture, both traditional and modern, has pragmatic aims. It is a holistic approach to health, involving prevention, treatment, and therapy. (10)
e.) Most power or agency reserved for a divine being ----- or realizable in individuals
Acupuncture is entirely realizable in individuals. It does not depend at all on a divine being, for authority, aid, or source. Practitioners study acupuncture as a medical science, where, with proper training, both Eastern or Western students can become experts in the field. (10)
Annotated Bibliography
I. Primary Sources
“
This film explores many aspects
of contemporary
Manaka, Yoshio, Kazuko Itaya, and Stephen
Birch. Chasing the Dragon’s Tail: The Theory and Practice of Acupuncture
in the Work of Yoshio Manaka.
This in-depth study of Dr. Manaka’s work with acupuncture will be most useful as I get further into my research and begin looking for specific details and information. Dr. Manaka and his co-authors begin by explaining the tradition and techniques of acupuncture, and then move into the more practical application of the system, including two specific case studies. This work is most helpful in my understanding of modern Eastern conceptions of acupuncture, and its relationship to Western science.
Taub, Arthur.
“Acupuncture: Nonsense with Needles.”
The Health Robbers: A Close Look
at Quackery in
In his article, Dr. Taub debunks acupuncture therapy based on his own experiences with the practice. It is interesting in my research to study the biases in the article, and to study which aspects of the system of acupuncture Dr. Taub is specifically opposed to. This is very interesting considering our class subject: exploring the relationship between magic/superstition, religion, and science.
Wei-P’ing, Wu. Chinese Acupuncture. Trans. Philip M.
Chancellor.
Dr. Wu Wei-P’ing,
the author of this book, is a practicing acupuncture physician in
II. Secondary Sources
Eckman, Peter. In the Footsteps of the Yellow Emperor:
Tracing the History of Traditional Acupuncture.
Through mostly interviews, Dr. Eckman has compiled this source on the practice of acupuncture,
its history, its development, and it migration west. One of the most interesting elements of this
book is its photograph depicting acupuncture therapy in practice. The book also includes charts and graphs of
the meridians and the other elements involved in the therapy. Dr. Eckman explores acupuncture’s tradition, and its continued
importance in modern Chinese medicine, as well as acupuncture’s introduction into the
Feuerman, Francine and Marsha J. Handel. Alternative Medicine Resource Guide.
This guide lists systems of
alternative medicine, and gives a brief summary of each treatment. It also lists organizations across the
country associated with the practice, along with contact information and each
organization’s general services and programs.
This reference is most helpful to my understanding of acupuncture’s
place in American medicine. By studying
the different lists of contacts and their location, I am able to determine
where in
Huke, Malcolm, ed. The Encyclopedia of
Alternative Medicine and Self-Help.
This resource contains brief, encyclopedic entries on many current trends in alternative medicine. The editor includes numerous cross references in each entry, including “associations,” naming practitioners throughout the country, “bibliography,” listing further references about specific treatments, and “products,” offering alternative medicine products available by mail order. It offers a general overview of acupuncture, and key words.
Malinowski, Bronislaw. “Magic, Science and
Religion.”
This source places acupuncture, and the conflicts between Eastern and Western medical techniques, in context with our course. I was able to understand Eastern theories of medical science, and place acupuncture as a science, as opposed to a magic or religious rite, using the definitive terms described by Malinowski.