The Bahá’í Faith
Lindsay Hagerman Magic, Science, and Religion
March 31, 2003
Keywords: the Báb, Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Baháh, Shoghi Effendi, Universal House of Justice, Manifestations of God, universal language/government, world peace, Iran, equality
I. Abstract
The Bahá’í religion originated from Bábism in nineteenth century Iran and now claims millions of followers around the world. The desire to unite the nations of the world under one globally-minded leadership, speaking one shared language, and abiding by the morals of one common faith serves as the most prominent feature of this religious system. Noteworthy for their anti-war efforts throughout the world in conjunction with various political entities such as the United Nations, the Bahá’ís emphasis the moral, intellectual, and physical education of youths and the preservation of cultures minus their divisive aspects. A divinely inspired and infallible Universal House of Justice directs initiates for the continued spread of the movement while more localized Spiritual Assemblies, or Houses of Justice, deal with smaller-scale religious issues. Bahá’ís view the finite capacity of the human mind as incapable of comprehending the infinity of God and the spiritual realities of the world. Therefore, followers must turn to the words of the Prophets, or the Manifestations of God, in order to gain glimpses of true knowledge.
II. Scope and Purpose
of the System
Bahá’ís characterize the world as divided into an old and new order, the first exemplified by racism, gossiping, partisan politics, and other negatives and the former distinguished by a harmonious unity of all people across the globe.[1] Followers of this religion see themselves as working to bring about this transition from old to new—as in the words of Bahá’u’lláh: “Soon will the present-day order be rolled up and a new one spread out in its stead.”[2] According to Shoghi Effendi, a single world legislature will legislate with integrity, putting the good of the world as a whole ahead of national or regional desires.[3] Another feature of this unified civilization will be a universal language destroying language barriers between neighbors.[4] Yet, this drive to unite governmentally and linguistically does necessitate stripping groups of their distinctive cultures. Nevertheless, Bahá’ís argue that they value cultural diversity and seek to preserve differences, however “stripped of any divisive potential.”[5]
Corresponding with the view of the world as an overcoming of the old with the new, humans consist of two sides, one lower and the other higher.[6] Humans should strive daily to replace the lower, animalistic side with the higher, spiritual side. This flawed, animal aspect of humanity shapes the Bahá’ís’ philosophy of government. The religion endorses no one economic or political system; nevertheless, Bahá’u’lláh rejected granting freedom in excess to citizens arguing that unbridled liberty led to chaos and immorality.[7] He stated, “We approve of liberty in certain circumstances, and refuse to sanction it in others,”[8] along with a disapproval of the separation of church and state as a method to minimize positive influences on people.[9]
As a result of this constant move to rid humans of their animal-like nature, education plays a key role in the Bahá’í faith. Physical, intellectual, and spiritual aspects comprise the necessary, compulsory education stressed by the Church that parents ensure their children.[10] Furthermore, in 1912, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá proclaimed that “the education of women is of greater importance than the education of men” since women become a child’s first teacher.[11]
This value of women embodies the broader Bahá’í belief in equality of the two genders. In his work, Promulgation of Universal Peace, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá also declares that, “mankind and womankind as parts of composite humanity are coequal and that no difference in estimate is allowable, for all are human.”[12] Particularly in the Middle Eastern countries such as Iran Shí’í Islam predominated, this regard for women as equal was unique.
Bahá’ís interpret health as relating to both the physical and the spiritual. Humans can promote their own health by living moral lives and taking practical steps to avoid disease and danger; however, accidents and sudden, seemingly inexplicable illnesses lie beyond their control.[13] For such cases, Bahá’ís turn to prayer as a method for restoring health, as in Bahá’u’lláh’s call to God for healing:
Thy name is my healing, O my God, and remembrance of Thee is my remedy. Nearness to Thee is my hope, and love for Thee is my companion. They mercy to me is my healing and my succor in both this world and the world to come. Thou, verily, art the All-Bountiful, the All-Knowing, the All-Wise.[14]
Likewise, one must consider death both physically and spiritually. Rather than viewing the body as the vehicle for a person’s soul, ‘Abdul’-Bahá explained “the rational soul [as] the substance through which the body exists.”[15] He continued to state that three elements promote the progress of a person’s spirit after the death of their physical bodies: God’s grace, other people’s prayers, and good deeds dedicated to the deceased.[16] In addition to characterizing one’s spirit or soul as existing through infinity, Bahá’u’lláh makes a notable distinction between body and soul in that although a person’s body may suffer and die from an illness, the soul remains unaffected by physical ailments of any sort.[17] Despite the Bahá’ís’ belief in death as the entrance into another plane of existence, followers reject the idea of reincarnation.[18]
Because ‘Abdul’-Bahá among others emphasized compassion through kindness toward animals, many but not all Bahá’ís practice vegetarianism While such customs are voluntary, others were prohibited by Bahá’u’lláh including: the priesthood, jihad, treating people and items as impure, slavery, drugs, gambling, homosexuality, confessing one’s sins, asceticism, and begging.[19]
III. Authority
Structure
A. Sources and Criteria of Valid Knowledge
Human nature is inherently limited—therefore, a finite capacity cannot possibly
completely comprehend the infinity of God and reality. As a result, the human mind cannot grasp a total knowledge of reality, and according to Bahá’u’lláh the first step to understanding all one can is to acknowledge the impossibility of one to do so.[20] The one connection between humans and God’s highest reality rests in the prophets, known as the Manifestations of God.[21] ‘Abdu’l-Bahá noted this belief clearly in his statement that, “all the descriptions, the qualities, the names and the attributes which we mention, return to the Divine Manifestations…Therefore, all that the human reality knows, discovers, and understand of the names, the attributes, and the perfections of God, refer to these Holy Manifestations.”[22] Although no authoritative list of the Manifestations of God exists, some of the people recognized as such demonstrate the Bahá’ís’ view that many major world religions share the same valid principles, differentiated only by cultural influences by including “Adam, Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Krishna, the Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and Bahá’u’lláh.”[23] The Manifestations of God communicated divine wisdom and interpretations that ordinary humans use to acquire greater knowledge of reality and God.[24] Most importantly, Manifestations of God fulfill the purpose of guiding humans toward “the straight Path of Truth” and educate people as to the truth though separate entities from God in and of themselves.[25]
In addition to recognizing these prophets as the sources of knowledge, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá outlined the four origins of human knowledge to be the senses, reason, scripture, and inspiration.[26] These four areas demonstrate the imperfect means available to ordinary humans to accumulate their incomplete knowledge of reality. In many cases, the physical senses prove unreliable as when sight may indicate water on the horizon but vision has simply mistaken heat rising from a surface. Likewise, reason frequently contains flaws since people may arrive at various conclusions under the same circumstances. Scriptures fail to provide a reliable source of knowledge since their interpretation is subject to potentially flawed reasoning. Lastly, inspiration falls short when humans feel moved to venture in a wrong direction. Though denoted as the human origins of knowledge, none of these four sources offer the integrity of the Manifestations’ expressions.[27]
B. Methods of Inquiry
Abdu’l-Bahá noted that a balance between all four methods yields the best possible method for the human acquisition of knowledge.[28] Each of the four aspects checks the others, and by taking all into consideration, a person more likely will come nearest to the truth.
While the Bahá’í faith does not claim to have scientific aspects, Bahá’u’lláh did urge people to “[w]itness the wondrous evidences of God’s handiwork,” and Bahá’í endorse science as an important aspect of education and human development.[29] ‘Abdu’l-Bahá classified the accordance between religion and science as paramount to acquiring knowledge about the world. However, Bahá’ís identify scientific and technological inquiry independent of religion as unproductive and even dangerous. Scientific discoveries unveil only partial truths and slow the transition from the old to new world order if not divinely motivated.[30] For instance, the religion embraces scientific investigations of disease in so far as they cure sickness. On the other hand, the same experiments would be condemned if the knowledge was used to produce biological weapons. The motivation behind science determines the Bahá’ís’ attitude toward its validity.
C. Institutions and Professional Structure
Bahá’u’lláh outlined in his writings an “Administrative Order” to organize the Bahá’í movement. Under his two successors, a system of national, state, and local Spiritual Assemblies, later called the Houses of Justice, formed to guide decision-making that promoted the development of the new world order. After the death of the last in this line of leaders, Shoghi Effendi, in 1963 the national Spiritual Assemblies met and elected nine representatives to comprise the Universal House of Justice, located on Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel. Though taking special precautions to allow the national, state, and local levels significant executive leeway, the Universal House of Justice serves as the supreme legislative and judiciary body of the Bahá’í faith. Followers consider legislation from this group on par with sacred texts in authority since God guides the decisions cast by the body and “will preserve the enactments of the Universal House of Justice from error.”[31] Therefore, followers leave questions not answered by the sacred texts of the Manifestations of God to this House to answer. Every five years, members of the Bahá’í faith convene to cast secret ballots for membership into this House, and in order to defend the process from corruption and lobbying for nominees, guidelines forbid nominations or the advertising of candidates. Although the Universal House of Justice governs followers of the faith, the body encourages Spiritual Assemblies all of the world to abide by the laws in their respective nations in order to prevent conflict and persecution.[32]
IV. History
Shí’í Muslims wait for the return of a messianic figure in Islamic history called the Mahdi. In the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, a number of religious leaders called Imams lived—the twelfth of which is believed to have entered hiding in the ninth century only to reappear later in history. In 1844 an Iranian merchant declared himself to be the Mahdi, and this man, Sayyid ‘Alí Muhammad Shírází, began to call himself the Báb and the followers of his religious movement, Bábís. One ardent follower at this time was Mírzá Husayan ‘Alí Núrí who will became a key figure later. He declared himself in equal stature to the founder of Islam, Muhammad, since his own coming marked the beginning of a new religious cycle. Initally the Báb gained minimal attention, but as word of his teachings spread, political leaders felt threatened by his growing influence. The state and the Shí’í clergy attempted to suppress Bábism by imprisoning the Báb, massacring and torturing the Bábís, and ultimately killing the Báb by firing squad. The circumstances of the Báb’s death in 1850 illustrate his connection with God in that the first time the firing squad lined up and shot at him, no bullet struck the Báb who mysteriously disappeared. Officials found him later, and since soldiers from the former squad refused to fire again on the Báb, a new group of soldiers had to be called to finish the execution. This time their shots fired true, and the Báb died.
The Báb’s ardent follower, Mírzá Husayn ‘Alí Núrí, received a vision while imprisoned in an underground pit with other Bábís in 1852. Officials released him into exile, and he emerged as Bahá’u’lláh in Baghdad where he rallied morale amongst the downtrodden Bábís and composed several important works. He proclaimed himself the Messianic figure the Báb had prophesied, and as word of this declaration spread, most Bábís became the new Bahá’ís. At seventy-four years of age, Bahá’u’lláh died after having lived forty of those years in exile or imprisoned. Having started life as an Iranian nobleman and abandoned this lifestyle in 1844 as a Bábís, Bahá’u’lláh focused many of his writings on society’s obligation to care for the disadvantaged and to promote justice and peace. Bahá’ís regard his burial place as the most sacred place in the world. His following expanded in terms of both geography and numbers to include several Middle Eastern countries and as many as 100,000 adherers by 1900.[33]
‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahá’u’lláh’s oldest son, succeeded his father as the leader of the Bahá’í movement, and this period was highlighted by the spread of Bahá’ísm to North America and Europe.[34] (McMullen 126). His travels throughout these continents and meetings with various significant leaders attracted a great deal of publicity for the movement (Momen 127). Like his father, he wrote many interpretive and explanatory works; but unlike his father, he was able to travel to many countries in order to speak on topics such as war and equality (Momen 126). In fact, he gained so much respect from the British that he was knighted for his contributions to modern thought (Momen 127). ‘Abdu’l-Bahá died in 1921 and was buried in the same shrine as the Báb (127).
Upon ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s death and according to his wishes, his eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi followed as the next leader of the Bahá’ís. During the 1920’s and 1930’s, persecution of adherents escalated in Iran and Soviet holdings in Central Asia (Momen 128). Shoghi Effendi’s most prominent achievement was the continued spreading of the religion to new continents and countries, as well as increasing the structural administration of the faith (128). Bahá’ísm expanded to Central America, South America, South-East Asia, Africa, and further into Europe (Momen 128-9). The pinnacle of Shoghi Effendi’s effort to spread the religion occurred from 1953-1963 in the Ten-Year Crusade in which enormous numbers of people all over the world joined the faith (Momen 129). However, before the end of this Crusade, Shoghi Effendi died in 1957 while visiting London (129).
In 1963 elections established who comprised the Universal House of Justice, according to the writings of Bahá’u’lláh (129). This international Bahá’í governing body continues today to administrate the global religious community through its subsidiary National Spiritual Assemblies.[35] The Universal House of Justice strives toward several goals including: to spread the religion globally, to collect and widen access to the works of important Bahá’í figures, and to develop “the relationships of the international Bahá’í community with international organizations such as the United Nations and its subsidiary organs.”[36]
Despite the successes of past leaders and the more recent Universal House of Justice, in nations such as Iran where Bahá’ís comprise the largest religious minority, these people continually suffer extreme persecution ranging from mob violence to dismissal from employment to property confiscation.[37] In fact, testimony suggests that “authorities are condoning and in some cases initiating the terror and repression against Baha’is.”[38]
V. Representative
Example of Argumentation
A person’s culture influences how one may interpret scripture, reason, and feel inspired. Consequently, cultural differences shaped by geography and lifestyle have led to varying perspectives of Deity and a person or a group should observe this Holiness. Therefore, Bahá’ís argue that the only true difference between religious traditions such as Islam, Christianity, and Bahá’ísm relates to culture. In essence, most religions observe the same God and strive toward goals of morality and happiness. Ultimately, the people will abandon the divisive aspects of culture and unite in peace and harmony as Bahá’ís.
One unique example of argumentation for the equality of women and men relates to the Bahá’í dismissal of war as representative of the evilness of the old world order. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá wrote in The Promulgation of Universal Peace that if society always deemed the genders equal, war would end because women, whose stances would carry equal weight as that of their male counterparts, would love their children too much to allow them to risk sacrificing their lives regardless of the cause.[39]
Bahá’ís argue that a balance exists between fate and free-will, and in his works ‘Abdu’l-Bahá used an allegory of a ship to communicate this circumstance. A ship dependent on the wind cannot move if the air remains still, but if the wind decides to blow, the ship receives direction and a means for travel. Nevertheless, ships have rudders that allow them to propel themselves in any direction they chose—just as people, who cannot act without the help of God, have the ability to determine whether they will act for good or for evil.[40] Fate may exist as immovable, such as the eventuality that all humans will die, or conditional, for instance one may take measures to prevent dying of certain causes.[41]
VI. Suggested
Position in Comparative Scales
A. Emphasis on traditional authority (1)---or the testimony of experience (10): 3
Humans must rely on the testimony of experience insomuch as they live their
daily lives and as evidenced by their embracing of scientific development. However, the sense perceptions fail to provide a reliable basis for gaining knowledge of reality. Traditional spiritual authority, viewed through the Manifestations of God, holds the key to understanding truth.
B. Centralization of authority (1)---or decentralization (10): 3
Although Spiritual Assemblies govern on a smaller scale, the Manifestations of God and the Universal House of Justice represent highly centralized authority whose decisions will ultimately guide the lives of all people of the world under total unity. On the other hand, the House intentionally leaves some questions to the conscience of individual believers.[42]
C. Emphasis on invisible/spiritual realities (1)---or material, earthly ones (10): 4
The Bahá’í faith emphasizes earthly results as demonstration of spiritual realities. For example, the completed spiritual transition to the new world order will be observable through a variety of early conditions: unity of humankind under the Universal House of Justice, all people with a common language, and the abolition of war.
D. Focus on spiritual/moral objectives (1)---or pragmatic aims (10): 2
All aspects of the Bahá’í religion target the morality of humanity—with pragmatic (such as organizing a governing entity) and spiritual (such as the mandatory, daily prayer) methods as means to a spiritual/moral ends. The emphasis on the moral education of children further demonstrates the view that no endeavor or knowledge has true worth without moral objectives.
E. Power reserved for divine being (1)---or realizable in individuals (10): 2
Ultimately the ability for individuals to act or exist whatsoever rests in the will of God; alternately, with God’s power allowing human actions, individuals have the free-will to proceed in life as they please. Other than the Manifestations of God, people lack the power to comprehend the reality of God.
Bibliography
Primary Sources:
‘Abdu’l-Baha. Some Answered Questions. Translated by Laura Clifford Barney. New
York City: Bahá’í Publishing Committee, 1930.
Many helpful explanations of beliefs ranging from the Prophets to free-will. A thorough overview and justification of a large number of Bahá’í convictions.
Bahá’u’lláh. “Prayers.” The Bahá’í Faith (official United States Church website) at
http://www.us.bahai.org/prayers/prayers6.html
This website offers a number of prayers written by Bahá’í leaders, including a prayer for healing among many others.
Bahá’u’lláh. “Selections from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh.” The Bahá’í World (official
Church website) at http://www.bahai.org/article-1-3-2-25.html
Thorough explanations of the condition of the human soul after bodily death and of the limitations of human knowledge.
“The Universal House of Justice” from The Bahá’í World (official Church
website) at http://www.bahai.org/article-1-3-0-6.html
Offers extensive information about the history and organization of the administrative structure of the Bahá’í Church.
“Turning Point for All Nations: Part II” from The Bahá’í World (official Church
website) at http://www.bahai.org/article-1-7-5-2.html
Addresses morality, educations, the new world order, and other topics with extensive quotations from Shoghi Effendi, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and Bahá’u’lláh.
Secondary Sources:
Cole, Juan R.I. “Iranian Millenarianism and Democratic Thought in the 19th Century.”
International Journal of Middle East Studies 24 (1992): 1-26.
Most of the article was not useful for this paper, but information regarding persecution and statistics on the Bahá’í population were helpful.
MacEoin, Denis. “The
Bahá’ís of Iran: The Roots of Controversy.” British Society for
Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 14, No.1: 75.
Fascinating and detailed history and information regarding the persecution of Bahá’ís in Iran, including references to Church relations with the Untied Nations.
McMullen, Michael. The Bahá’í Faith: The Religious Construction of a Global Identity.
Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000.
An overview of the authoritative structure and mission of the Bahá’í church.
Momen, Moojan. The Bahá’í Faith: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld
Publications, 1997.
A broad overview of the history, major issues, significant beliefs, and structure of the world’s Bahá’í community. Particularly helpful for this paper.
Smith, Peter. A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá’í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld
Publications, 2000.
Includes practically every imaginable topic regarding this religious movement all put in alphabetical order. By far, one of the most helpful and informative resources I used.
[1] Michael McMullen, The Bahai Faith: The Religious Construction of a Global Identity (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000), 112.
[2] “Turning Point for All Nations: Part II” from The Bahai World (official website) at http://www.bahai.org/article-1-7-5-2.html (p.2)
[14]
Bahá’u’lláh,
“Prayers.” The Bahá’í Faith
(official United States website) at http://www.us.bahai.org/prayers/prayers6.html,
(p.1)
[15] Abdul-Baha, Some Answered Questions, trans. Laura Clifford Barney (New York City: Bahai Publishing Company, 1930), 278.
[17]
Baha’u’llah, “Selections from the Writings of Baha’u’llah,” The Bahai World (official website) at http://www.bahai.org/article-1-3-2-25.html,
(p.1)
[18] Peter Smith, A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahai Faith (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000), 289.
[31] “The Universal House of Justice,” from The Bahai World (official website) at http://www.bahai.org/article-1-3-0-6.html, (p. 2)
[33] Juan R.I. Cole, “Iranian Millenarianism and Democratic Thought in the 19th Century,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 24 (1994): 1.
[37] Denis MacEoin, “The Bahais of Iran: The Roots of Controversy,” British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 14, No. 1: 75.