Amulets in Ancient Egyptian Society
Kynai Johnson
Key Words: amulet heka defixiones Maat Dream Book surgeon healer priest doctor magician
Magic
played a significant role in the day to day life of the ancient Egyptians.
Perhaps no aspect encompasses this fact better than the amulet. Most often
depicted as being worn about the neck, there were seemingly innumerable uses
for them. Amulets were used in times of sickness, childbirth, and extensive
travel; as well as for protection from the dangers of the night. Men, women and
children shared an equal interest in their powers. There was no social class
distinction, and this practice was common even among the scholarly. Amulets
were recommended by doctors, utilized by priests and approved by "scientists"
of the ancient Egyptian era.
II.
Scope and Purpose
of the System
The system of utilizing amulets has been
discovered in many ancient civilizations, including ancient Egypt. Amulets were
often buried with the dead, as a means to protect the deceased during their
journey to the Under World. They were also deemed too personal to be passed on.
As a result, many studies of amulets deal with their relationship to the
departed. However, there were many different purposes for an amulet.
Specifically, this paper will deal with their daily usage in ancient Egyptian
societies. For the living, amulets offered protection "from a wide range
of known and unknown evils"[i].
Amulets offered peace of mind, bodily health, as well as mental stability.
"There is no one who is not afraid of curses
and binding spells" Pliny, the Elder[ii].
In blatant terms, amulets were essential to the life of the ancient Egyptians.
As a result, neither social position, nor lack of wealth could defer an
individual from possessing one. The availability of amulets, despite social
classes, was partly due to the wide range of materials they could be made from.
This aspect will be discussed further at a later point. Magic was deeply
embedded in the culture of the Egyptians, and as a result, it's believed
influence was wide spread.
The main source and criteria the ancient Egyptians used to validate their belief in amulets developed from an ancient myth. According to Egyptian myth, Maat the goddess of Justice, Peace and Harmony, was the first being to inhabit the earth. Before the deity created the world and its inhabitants, it was believed to have existed in a state of chaos. Heka, or "magic", enabled Maat to create the world, as well as other deities, and humankind. As we delve deeper into the Egyptian belief in amulets, it is important to have a stronger understanding of Maat.
The name "Maat", originally deemed a goddess, became a rather ambiguous term as time progressed. "It is justice as the divine order of society, but it is also the divine order of nature established at the time of creation."[iii]The ancient Egyptians' belief in "divine order of society" heavily impacted their seemingly unquestionable belief in the power of amulets.
As this myth illustrates, the Egyptians believed that their civilization had a strong foundation in magic. Through the eyes of the Egyptians, deities, supernatural beings and even Pharaohs, all had heka. Outside of this power progression, the deceased, as well as individuals with abnormalities, were also thought to have heka. Some may deem this as a highly superstitious mentality. However, despite agreement or disapproval with this terminology, the ancient Egyptian's belief in magic and "divine order" created a need for protection. Those considered powerful enough to have and utilize heka were in large number, not excluding the power nature itself exercised.
Aside from the myth which derives the ancient Egyptian belief in magic, it becomes difficult to locate exactly how amulets emerged as the solution to ward off evil spirits. Nevertheless, once the idea had been introduced, it was adopted on the basis of pure reason, and "common sense".
Although impossible to display in this research paper, surviving papyrus texts emphasize the strong influence magic and superstition had on people's lives. A specific surviving medical manuscript was discovered which diagnosed each day. The days were labeled as "good", "partly good", "bad" or "partly bad". The ancient Egyptians used this information to create calendars to show the status of each day. As a result, the Egyptians were able to decide which days were safe to take part in certain activities, such as travel or hunting.[iv] Although this example does not show how the knowledge of amulets was acquired, it does help to illustrate its' interpretation, and pragmatic use.
"Amulets were prepared and sold by specialists who produced them according to traditional recipes and consecrated them through ritual acts, thereby endowing them with effective power."[v] Therefore, it can be inferred that specialists acquire knowledge of amulets through pragmatic means. At some point, (which will be discussed more specifically in the "History" section), amulets became deeply woven into ancient Egyptian culture. Their traditional acceptance then acted as their strongest legitimizing factor.
Likewise, ritual acts were utilized to legitimize the power of the amulet, on a spiritual basis as well. Thus far, pragmatism and inference have been the only identified explanations as to the recognized criteria judging the efficiency of amulets. In present day, historians have desperately searched for an explanation as to why amulets were so widely accepted and utilized in society. "Perhaps it was the power of suggestion; the recitation of spells was a form of comfort and hope for the sick." [vi] Whatever the case may have been, with this abundance of knowledge in science and medicine, one must be hesitant to swiftly brush off their beliefs in amulets and magic. After all, the ancient Egyptian systems were run by trial and error, and amulets were openly accepted by all upstanding members of society (the pharaoh, physicians, priests, etc). This produces an interesting contrast to present western ideals.
There was an interesting system the Egyptians would use to diagnose the sick and diseased. Primarily, physician priest would be called from the temple to look upon the sick individual. These men had studied "medical papyri" all their lives. Before presenting any medicine, the physician priest would first consult the medical papyri. The symptoms of the illness in accordance with the text would indicate whether or not the individual should be cured. For example, the medical papyri may identify the sickness as an act of divine intervention.
If the illness was a lesson being taught to the individual by a deity, or if it was simply that individual's time to die, there would be a diagnosis of "A disease I cannot treat", and nothing would be done. However, the medical papyri may also speculate that a demon was the cause of the illness. The Egyptians believed that demons sometimes used people's bodies as a potential battle ground against a deity. If this was determined to be the case, the physician priest would give the diagnosis of: "A disease against which I can fight". The physician priest would then proceed to produce a special amulet, to protect the person. The priest would also perform certain rituals intended to encourage the deity to enter the body and fight the demon.
The above example outlines an example of "proof" of the power of amulets. Perhaps grave illnesses, where the individual was likened to die, were termed "a disease I cannot treat." As a result, the less serious illnesses' may have received the more positive diagnosis. The latter disease would have then been "treated" with an amulet, chosen by a specialist. Therefore, it is easy to see how the use of amulets gained validity. The individuals utilizing an amulet were most often restored to health. On the other hand, those who did not receive assistance from an amulet were considerably more likened to die.
There are no prime examples of similar systems or traditions with clear parallels to amuletic use. Nevertheless, the question of whether the scientific acceptance of amulets upholds the standards of modern science can be addressed. Many historians admit that the science and medicine of the Egyptian time was well advanced, in terms of today's standards. This strength was particularly notable among discernable ailments and injuries. Surviving medical papyri prove that the categorizations of diseases, as well as the examination procedures, were in many aspects almost equivalent to modern day. Likewise, there was an abundance of impressive treatments and diagnosis. As previously noted, it is speculated that the Egyptians gained their impressive knowledge of natural drugs, as well as accurate instructions to ward of future diseases, through trial and error. The Egyptian physicians were well aware of the importance of rest and care in terms of recovery, as well as the importance of basic hygiene in order to offset future problems.[vii]
However, regardless of how advanced many aspects of their culture became, where science and medicine failed, magic became a secure solution. Clearly, this is not the case in modern science. To the ancient Egyptians, the will of the gods was final. This idea relates back to the association of "the divine order of nature"[viii] and Maat, earlier discussed. If an individual used medicine to cure an illness, and yet, she lost her life, the medicine failed. However, if an individual utilized magic to cure an illness, and yet she lost her life, it was simply the will of the gods. Magic was a "secure solution" because it was a way to guarantee that the "right" outcome would always come to pass. For the ancient Egyptians, this mentality offered enough testament and "proof" of the validity of amulets. As a result, modern science can respect the achievements of ancient Egyptian science, however, the blurred line between magic and science cannot hold up to the standards of modern science.
Within the ever present debate between Magic, Science and Religion, modern day historians may find it difficult to digest the unity of these aspects in ancient Egyptian society. In this society, rituals and ceremonies, which would be deemed perhaps demonic, or at the least, "magical", were presided over by priests. Perhaps this example embodies the paradox of ancient Egyptian life. Nevertheless, it was a tradition which should be respected, even if not fully understood. Thus, the organization and preservation of amuletic knowledge was practiced through these various institutions.
There was no central authority, per se, since amulets were accepted by seemingly all ancient Egyptian "institutions" (government, medicine, science and religion, for examples). Amuletic training occurred through customs. The "specialists", described earlier, developed a system of making amulets, which became embedded in the ancient Egyptian culture. Therefore, the control the participating "institutions" exercised was relative. As an overall defining factor, certain methods were so embedded into the culture that various institutions would be would be virtually powerless to contest them.
An example of this may include that part of the desire for amulets was based upon the belief that the neck was a particular spot of vulnerability for the ancient Egyptians. Thus, the amulets claimed to offer protection, because they were (most often) located around the neck. In a similar manner, the ancient Egyptians believed that the heka of an individual, or deity, originated from their stomachs. The pelvis, along with the neck, was considered a dangerous and weak spot for women. As a result, amulet belt straps and girdles were not uncommon. Along with heka, it was believed that each individual's emotions were in their stomach, as well. Due to the belief that the navel could be utilized as a passage way, the Egyptians believed that the stomach was often vulnerable to attack from demons.
If any given "institution" had attempted to speak against these traditionally accepted aspects of amuletic use, they would have been met with considerable resistance. In an abstract sense, tradition was the central authority, as well as the most controlling element in amuletic practice. Furthermore, in terms of discussing tradition, it is important to understand a few aspects of the known history of amulets.
IV. History
Among historians, as well as those familiar with the practices and traditions of the Egyptians, there is often thought of this civilization as "irrational, morbid and superstitious."[ix] There is evidence of Egyptian magic spanning about four and a half thousand years. Magical texts, or, spell books, have been discovered from as early as the third Millennium, B.C. Evidence that the Egyptians had begun to use amulets occurs about as early as the Fourth millennium, B.C.
Beginning in the 12th century B.C., the ancient Egyptians began to face trials and tribulations abroad. During this time, the Egyptians found themselves governed by a foreign power, the Hyksos. The Hyksos allowed technological growth, by introducing the horse and Chariot into society. As the Egyptians began to expand their horizons, they initially found difficulties in their travels, including relationships with foreign cultures. The significant crisis of this time period resulted in a notable increase in the use of magic, spells and amulets.
The importance of amulets in the ancient Egyptian society decreased as time passed. This transitional occurrence was particularly notable after the development of The New Kingdom. Around 1550 B.C., Amenhotep usurped the throne from alien powers and reunified Egypt. The new influences and beliefs of this time period continued until Christian influence overwhelmed the culture. As a result, the use of amulets became overall obsolete.
V. Representative Examples of Argumentation
The "truth" and values of amulets were thoroughly apparent in the practicality of the tradition. As mentioned earlier, part of the availability of amulets, despite social class, was based upon the abundance of materials with which they could be made. However, in order to fully understand this, it is important to realize that the Egyptian definition for an "amulet" is considerably different from what we presently attribute to the terminology.
An amulet is perhaps most thought of as a precious jewel. Although carnelian, turquoise, and lapis lazuli were in fact often used as amulets, and amulets were often worn as jewelry, this is by no mean the extent of their material substance. An amulet may have been made from any array of objects, but it also may have consisted of any assortment of objects, as well. In fact, an amulet may be strung on a string, and worn as a necklace, for example. In this instance, any and all of the elements on the string (a shell, a fang, a stone, etc) as well as the string itself, were all considered "an amulet".
Some "amulets" were made up of bags, which may have contained herbs, river pebbles, and roots; shells from the Red Sea or even small statues. In fact, the term "amulet" was even so ambiguous as to include any magic words, or meticulous motions which would activate their powers. The term "amulet" could be applied to something natural, as easily as something man made. However, as discussed in the introduction, heka (or, "magic") was believed to reside in rare, abnormal, or strange people, as well as objects. Keeping this in mind, it stands to good reason that the Egyptians deemed all natural (and especially peculiar) amulets as particularly powerful. Hieroglyphic script was often used as a basis for an amulet. Even today, for example, the utilization of the Ancient Egyptian sign for "ankh" is very popular. This term identifies the word "life". As a result, an amulet portraying this sign was and is believed to produce longevity in life. In an overall obsolete system, this influence is among the few surviving aspects of the tradition. Therefore, this knowledge also portrays the pragmatic aspect of amuletic acceptance. Amulets were also pragmatic in the fact that the system did not come into conflict, nor respond to other systems of the time.
The lack of conflict amulets produced can perhaps be attested to the accepted ambiguity of amulets. Not only was the definitive aspect of "amulet" rather ambiguous, but the uses for amulets begun to cover a wide range of functions as well. Therefore, as opposed to conflicting with other systems, the traditions of amulets grew, embracing other systems, until the differentiating lines blurred. For example, amulets began to be utilized as defixiones, or "love stones designed to attract or separate lovers." The purpose for amulets even extended to thumokatochon, a stone "intended to subdue the anger of a personal enemy". Amulets were further utilized as "aggressive stones" to harm and kill, as well as counter defixiones, to ward off a mystical attraction.[x]
VI. Suggested Position in Comparative
Scales
According to one source, "A fear of night terrors seemed to have been characteristic of the Egyptians. Some amulets are described as protectors of the bedchamber.”[xi] The Egyptians held the notion that demons and evil forces gained increasing strength during the hours of the night. Even more terrifying, was the belief that sleep was a minute decent into the Underworld. "The magical import of dreams as a means of divination was also taken seriously." The Dream Book, an ancient document parallel almost to The Book of the Dead, was often utilized to help interpret these dreams[xii]. Overall, in what might be called a "superstitious" society, there was an infinite array of usages for an amulet in day to day life. This factor exemplifies, once more, the traditional authority which merited the practice. This also illustrates the emphasis on invisible realities in ancient Egyptian life.
There were "temporary amulets" utilized in special occurrences, such as during sickness, for protection during an upcoming journey, or perhaps in hopes of warding off a difficult pregnancy. These factors may be attributed to the traditional authority, as well as draw upon as examples of tangible realities which called for the use of amulets as well. Collectively, these examples seem to classify amuletic use in terms of their literal spiritual use (to ward of invisible realities), as well as their moral use (including healing and protection). Furthermore, in the absence of advanced medicine, children were most likely to fall prey to sickness, disease and death. As a result, although amulets were used by all individuals in society, Egyptians felt that they were especially vital for children and infants. This fact helps to emphasis their moral objectives as well.
"To the Egyptians, magic was a real and potent force. What we might trivialize and dismiss as superstitious was for the ancient a tangible method of communicating with the gods and seeking their favor."[xiii] Amulets were accepted by literally all the members of the ancient Egyptian civilization. Particularly in terms of importance to this paper, amulets were accepted, and even widely used by religious officials, as well as medical specialists. There were three groups of practitioners within the Ancient Egyptian medical profession: Surgeon healers, priest doctors, and pure magicians. These three categories all seem to embody elements of the other, emphasizing once more the close ties between magic, science and religion in their society. The collective acceptance of amulets helps to emphasize the decentralization of the practice. Even as time drew on, the most empirical doctors were unable to find fault with the tradition. Their knowledge of science and medicine grew, but they held fast to this particular tradition.
In conjunction with the
uncertainty life held in the ancient Egyptian culture, their belief in magic does
not seem too surprising. Pregnancies often ended in death for the women as a
result of difficulties, children often fell deathly ill, and no matter how
advanced their medicine was, any injury could prove fatal. However, a belief in
amulets granted a certain protection through the dangers of the night, as well
as a ray of optimism with each new day. "Thus protected by gods and
charms, the Egyptians were free to enjoy the bounties of their rich land".[xiv]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Christian,
Paul. The History and Practice of Magic. Edited and Revised by Ross
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This secondary source deals with
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El Mahdy, Christine. Mummies, Myth and Magic in Ancient Egypt. New York,
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This secondary source focuses on
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Frankfort, Henri. Ancient Egyptian Religion. Harper and Row,
Publishers. New York, New York. Columbia University Press, 1948
This secondary source deals with
the close ties between religion and magic in ancient Egypt. It also speaks of
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religious individuals.
Pinch, Geraldine. Magic in Ancient Egypt. Austin Texas. University of
Texas Press, 1995.
This secondary source expounds
upon ‘medicine and magic’, ,’demons and spirits’, ‘magicians and priests’, ‘myth and magic’ as well as ‘magic and the
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Stead, Miriam. Egyptian Life. Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard
University Press, 1986.
This secondary source discusses
Egyptian Civilization, Social life and customs, as of 332 B.C. It deals with
the daily usages for amulets during the ancient Egyptian era, as well as the
wide acceptance of the custom.
Curse Tablets and Binding Spells From the Ancient World. Edited by John
G. Gager. New York, New York. Oxford University Press, 1992.
This secondary source document
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and science. It also speaks of various amuletic uses during the ancient
Egyptian era.