Ashley Brown

Religion 195B

3/31/03

Jainism

Keywords

Jainism, Jina, karma, Indian religion, Digambara, Svetambara, Mahavira

I. Abstract

Jainism is a religion found mainly in India whose followers believe strongly in nonviolence. The goal of life is to attain nirvana by destroying the eight karmas. This may be accomplished by any living being. Jainas follow the teachings of Jinas, special monks who have “perfect limitless knowledge.” The last great Jina was Mahavira, and he lived more than 2500 years ago. Nowadays, Jains are divided into two main sects: the Digambara, or “sky-clad,” who believe that nudity is a necessity for monks, and the Svetambara, or “white-clad,” who do not require nudity of a monk.

II. Scope and Purpose of the System

Jainism has been described as a “cousin” of Buddhism (Babb 1996), but actually describes several closely connected but distinct religious sects of peoples found mainly in India (Dundas 1992). These sects are based on several important principles: Ahimsa, not causing harm, which, along with refraining from physical violence also encompasses a respect for all living creatures; Anekantavada, multiple viewpoints; Aparigraha, avoidance of material possessions; and Satya, renunciation of secular life. Jaina monks and nuns, also known as ascetics or mendicants, must take the “Five Great Vows,” which include Ahimsa, Satya, Aparigraha, Achaurya/Asteya (nonstealing), and Brahmacharya (celibacy and chastity). Jaina laypersons, most of whom are vegetarians due to the principle of Ahimsa, live by the anuvratas, or lesser vows. Each morning, all Jains recite the Panka Namaskara, or “The Five Homages.” These are said to “dispel evil, cure illness, and bring good fortune” (Lin).

One of the founding principles of Jainism is that time has no beginning or end, and all things in the universe are continually changing. Thus, things are neither created nor destroyed, and there is no place in Jaina theology for an omniscient god to have created the world and the creatures in it. However, although they do not believe in one all-powerful god, Jains do have many gods and goddesses which they worship. The Jains believe in eight categories of karma, which a person must destroy to attain liberation of the soul. A person who does this is then considered a perfect being, a god. All living beings thus have the potential to become gods, and the number of gods is ever increasing as more souls are liberated (Lin).

III. Authority Structure

a. Sources and Criteria of Valid Knowledge

The term Jaina literally translated means “follower of a Jina.” Jinas, also called Tirthankaras, are human teachers who have reached the state of infinite knowledge, called kevalajnana, and preach salvation, called moksa. Twenty-four Jinas are believed to appear in each half of a life cycle. These Jinas are “propagators of the truth” who do not teach new lessons; instead, they help new generations to ascertain the truth. According to the scriptures, a Jina is an ordinary human born to normal human parents; however, many Jains believe that the Jinas will have defining physical characteristics. A Jina will not know he is such until he is “awakened” by the gods, at which time he gives up his former life to become a mendicant, or monk, and, without the help of a teacher, attains kevalajnana (Jaini 1979).

The most recent Jina was Mahavira, who, according to tradition, was born in 599 B.C. in Kundagrama. Little is known about his life before he became a Jina, and much of the available information is not agreed upon by the Svetambaras and Digambaras, the two major sects of Jainism. However, both factions agree that at age thirty, he was approached by the gods and encouraged to give up the household life. Mahavira accepted this calling and began his life as a mendicant, although the Svetambaras and Digambaras, not surprisingly, have different versions of the story. He is then said to have wandered for twelve years, at times neither eating nor drinking for a week. He attained kevalajnana exactly twelve years, six months and fifteen days after his visit from the gods (Jaini 1979). Prior to his “initiation” (diksa) Mahavira fasted for many days and had given up all of his worldly goods. Then, he pulled his hair out by the roots, as is required for the Jina to prove that he no longer cares for his body (Stevenson 1984). He thus became the twenty-fourth Jina of the present cycle; Mahavira “passed into nirvana” over 2500 years ago at the age of 72 in the traditional manner of starvation. The Jainas celebrate this event in their Dipavali (Festival of Lights) (Jaini 1979).

Teachings of a Jina are said to take place through divyadhvani, a “divine sound” which encompasses the meaning of the Jina’s doctrines. Eventually, these lessons were translated by Jain monks into sutra, which became the Jaina scriptures. This literature is known by several various names, and comprises over sixty works, all written in an ancient language called Ardhamagadhi. The fourteen Purvas, or old texts, no longer exist. All that remains are secondhand descriptions of them in later Jaina literature. From such works, scholars have concluded that the Purvas contained information on Jaina astronomy and astrology, nature of the cosmos, and other doctrines, to name a few. All but one of the twelve Angas, or limbs, still exist. Their teachings cover the laws for nuns and monks, the examination of false views, doctrine, and stories with which to educate the laypeople. The third and final group of scriptural books is called the Angabahya, or subsidiary canon; most of these eighteen volumes dealing with confession still exist (Jaini 1979).

b. Methods of Inquiry

The ultimate goal of a Jain is to liberate his soul by reaching nirvana. Ascetics reach this path more quickly than laypeople because of their extremely restricted code of conduct and ritual activities (Jaini 1916). For example, ascetics must beg for their food (Babb 1996), and some are not even allowed dishes or utensils (Jaini 1979). In some sects, particularly the Digambara, or “sky-clad”, monks must also go about in the nude; the retention of clothing is seen as retention of shame, which is considered a type of worldly possession (Jaini 1979). In return for this strict regime, the ascetics are held in high esteem by Jain laypersons, and are considered true authorities on Jaina doctrines. Most Jains tend to specially follow one ascetic whom they see as their “guru” (Babb 1996). This ascetic gives speeches, and initiates religious rituals such as fasting. The ascetic might also “admonish and scold lay Jains for laxity in their behavior” (Babb 1996).

Laypersons, while still following an austere code of conduct, are less restricted in their day-to-day activities. The lay path to nirvana traverses eleven stages called pratimas. Before one can begin, he must commit himself to becoming a follower of Jaina doctrine, and must abide by several rules such as daily worship, and refraining from intoxicants, gambling, and adultery. The first of the pratimas, Darsana, simply requires that one have faith and knowledge of Jainism. The second pratima consists of the anuvratas, the eleven vows taken by laypersons. By taking these vows, one promises not to destroy any kind of life, lie, or steal. Each consecutive pratima helps the person abandon more of his worldly life, and the final three prepare him for the life of an ascetic (Jaini 1916).

According to Jina doctrine, there are several different levels of spiritual growth, determined by how much karma one has destroyed (Shah 1995). To Jains, karma is seen as a physical substance, and as such they can and must be destroyed to attain liberation of the soul (Dundas 1992). The first four levels of karma are known as Ghati karmas because they affect inner qualities of the soul, namely delusion, knowledge, vision, and natural qualities. The last four karmas, dealing with body, lifespan, social standing, and pleasure and pain of the body, are called Aghati karmas because they affect the body which houses the soul (Shah 1995).

c. Institutions and Professional Structure

A person who destroys only his Ghati karmas is an Arihant. An Arihant remains human, but is gifted with perfect knowledge of the past, present, and future. Arihants fall into two categories: Tirthankara and ordinary-kevali. Tirthankaras, also called Jinas, establish a following of monks, nuns, and laypeople to whom they preach Jaina doctrine (Shah 1995). The religious following of a Jina is known as a four-fold order: monks, nuns, sravaks (laymen) and sravikas (laywomen). Monks and nuns take the “Five Great Vows,” in which they renounce the household life, and practice self-control. They are the spiritual teachers of laypeople. Laypeople follow the anuvratas, and while they are not required to give up the household life, they are expected to life a pure and honest life (Shah 1995). Worship takes place in elaborate temples and wooden shrines within homes of the laity (Lin).

A Jina’s teachings are translated by ganadharas, or chief disciples, who belong to the Brahman caste and have taken their mendicant vows. Of Mahavira’s twelve Ganadharas, ten attained omniscience (kevalajnana) twelve years after taking their vows, thus becoming kevalins (Jaini 1979). A Kevali differs from a Jina only in that he does not establish a following. Kevalins do not play a role in the religious order, but remain in a state of perfect bliss for their entire lives (Shah 1995).

Once a man has destroyed his Ghati karmas, the other four will also be destroyed before his death. When all eight karmas are destroyed, he enters nirvana and is known as a Siddha. This occurs at the end of the life of all Jinas and Kevalins (Shah 1995).

IV. History

In Jaina culture, time is eternal, having neither beginning nor end. It is composed of cycles, each of which has two eras, an ascending era and a descending era. During the ascending era, piety and truth (dharma) increase, while in the descending era, dharma decreases until “chaos and confusion reign over the earth” (Jaini 1916). Each era is subdivided further into six ages. In the descending era, in which we currently live, happiness decreases and misery increases with each age; the opposite is true of the ascending era. It is during each of these half-cycles that the twenty-four Jinas come into being one at a time (Jaini 1979). Each Jina, rather than founding a new sect of Jainism, instead merely reforms the existing system according to the needs of the times (Jaini 1916). The Jains claim that their religion was founded by Rishabha, the first Jina of the present cycle. He was, of course, followed by twenty-three other Jinas, ending with Mahavira. One must note, however, that while there is always a Jina present somewhere in the universe, there are never two in the same place at the same time (Jaini 1979).

After Mahavira’s death, his disciples, or Kevalins, Gautama, Sudharma, and Jambu continued to teach his philosophy (i.e. the Purvas and Angas) for almost sixty-two years. After their attainment of nirvana and subsequent death, the teachings were carried on by five Sruti-kevalins. This knowledge was then passed down through several groups: the Dasa-Purvins, the Ekadasa-Angins, and finally to the Catur-Angins and Eka Angins. After this, no one was left with the knowledge of the Purvas or Angas. To prevent further loss of Jaina scriptures, they began to be recorded in writing (Jaini 1916).

Jainism is thought to have originated in the Ganges basin and diffused throughout India. The main areas of concentrations of Jains has shifted through the centuries, most likely as a result of differing economic climates; laypersons would migrate to an area with better opportunities, and the ascetics, dependent on the laity for food, would follow. Around the fourth or third century B.C., Jains shifted west to the trading city of Mathura. Here they lived with several other religious groups. By the first century A.D., many middle-class members of the laity took pilgrimages to Mathura. However, by the fourth or fifth century, Jains had begun to migrate further west (Dundas 1992).

When Europeans first began to encounter Jainism, they mistook it for Buddhism, likening Mahavira to Buddha and perceiving his teachings as an offshoot of the religion. Only recently have western scholars corrected this erroneous viewpoint. In fact, many Buddhist works have been found to refer to Jaina doctrines and principles (Jaini 1916).

V. Representative Examples of Argumentation

The central principle of Jainism, Ahimsa, affects many aspects of daily life. Jainas are not permitted to eat foods which involve the slaughter of animals or which may contain insects, such as fruits. Furthermore, they are not permitted to work in industries producing such foods, nor ones that in other ways involve the slaughter of animals for commercial gain. Intoxicants are similarly prohibited, for they are not necessary for well-being, and also because small animals or insects might be harmed in the fermentation process. In their social interactions, as well, Jainas try to avoid hurting the feelings of another. Perhaps because of all these practices, Jainas have a particularly low crime rate when compared with other religions such as Hinduism and Christianity (Jaini 1916).

The Digambara and Svetambara sects have, in some respects, drastically different views of religious life. These two divisions of Jainism grew apart in approximately the fourth century, A.D., well after Mahavira’s death. Even so, each tradition maintains separate “stories” about his transformation into a Jina. The Digambaras believe that Mahavira was a bachelor throughout his life, and when approached by the gods, removed his clothing and pulled out his hair. Digambaras maintain that nudity is a necessity for a Jaina mendicant, as part of giving up the household life. The Svetambaras, however, believe that Mahavira married and had children before being called by the gods. While they agree with the Digambaras in that Mahavira tore out his hair, they believe that he wore a devya-dusya (divine cloth), which he eventually lost and thereafter went about nude. While in both cases Mahavira was eventually without clothing, in the Svetambara version, this was accidental (Jaini 1979).

The liberation of women’s souls has also long been debated between these two sects. The Digambaras believe that women cannot reach nirvana, while the Svetambaras steadfastly maintain that both sexes can attain spiritual liberation. One major source of this debate lies in the Digambara’s requirement for nudity of monks. This became a problem because women were not permitted to adopt this practice and therefore could not become true mendicants. Svetambara women, however, were allowed to become mendicants while retaining their clothing, as their doctrine allows. A third, smaller sect, the Yapaniya, takes the middle ground by requiring nudity of male mendicants while allowing female nuns to attain moksa while clothed. The Digambara also find no evidence in the scriptures that permits women to attain moksa, and use this to further their cause. The Svetambara refute this by pointing out that the scriptures do not deny moksa to women; therefore, they, too, can liberate their souls. However, this debate is not relevant to current Jains because all sects believe that no one can attain moksa until the coming of the next Jina millions of years from now (Jaini 1991).

VI. Suggested Position in Comparative Scales

   a. Traditional authority (1) ----- testimony of experience (10) 9

Jaina philosophy preaches eternal truths which are knowable to all men. In the same way, all living beings can attain liberation of the soul and become gods. However, laypeople are guided on their quest for these truths through the scriptures of the Jinas and the teachings of mendicants.

   b. centralization of authority (1) ----- or decentralization (10) 8

While the scriptures of the Jinas are of importance for knowing how to live, most religious acts, especially for laypeople, consist of meditation and practicing of doctrines. In some cases, though, laypeople will gather to learn from monks or nuns.
   c. emphasis on invisible (spiritual or heavenly) realities (1) ----- or material, earthly ones (10) 1

Guidelines of Jainism require renunciation of the earthly world, especially for mendicants, who endure hunger, nudity, and sometimes persecution.

d. Mainly spiritual or moral objectives (1) ----- or pragmatic aims (10) 1

The highest goal in life is destruction of the eight karmas to attain liberation of the soul. In stark contrast to pragmatic benefits, renunciation of the material world is of strong emphasis in Jaina culture.
   e. Most power or agency reserved for a divine being (1) ---- or realizable in individuals (10) 10

The ability to attain nirvana is present in every living being, including animals. Furthermore, the Jainas have no supreme god; instead, their many gods are the beings who have liberated their souls.

Annotated Bibliography

Secondary Sources

Babb, Lawrence A. Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.

This book provides a look at the strict life of Jaina monks, and also discusses worship of the many Jaina gods. Babb’s writings are based in part on his personal visits to India.

Dundas, Paul. The Jains. London: Routledge, 1992.

This book provides a detailed history of the Jains, especially with respect to geographical locations.

Jaini, Jagmanderlal. Outlines of Jainism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1916.

This book outlines clearly the structures of Jaina theology, ethics, and history. It also translates selected portions of ancient Jaina texts.

Jaini, Padmanabh S. Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.

This book focuses on the debate between Digambara and Svetambara sects on women’s role in Jainism, and whether they can achieve moksa in a female body.

---. The Jaina Path of Purification. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.

This book is an easy-to-read guide about Jainism, with specific details on Mahavira and the differences between the Digambara and Svetambara sects.

Lin, Patricia. Jainism. Cal Poly University, Pomona. 20 March 2003 <http://www.intranet.csupomona.edu/~plin/ews430/jain1.html>.

This website details Jaina life and outlines some key beliefs. It also contains links to some translated Jaina scriptures and other texts.

Shah, Pravin. Concept of God in Jainism. 9 Feb 1995. Jain Study Center of North Carolina. 14 March 2003 <http://www.ibiblio.org/jainism/EmailBulletins/ConceptofGod_Jainism>.

This newsletter on Jainism explains the system of karma, and the progression through life of destroying karmas. It also outlines the Jaina view of gods.

Stevenson, Sinclair. The Heart of Jainism. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Private Limited, 1984.

This book details Jaina history, including the life of Mahavira, as well as common practices and principles. It closes with a chapter in which the author tries to compare Jainism to Christianity and reconcile the two schools of thought.