David Kern

3/31/03

Religion 195

Final Draft

Title of System

Voodoo

Keywords

Voodoo, Haiti, priest, loa, slave trade

I. Abstract

Voodoo is the dominant religion of the peasant class of Haiti. It came into existence as a result of the slave trade to the French colony. The African’s tribal religions were mixed with the Catholicism of the colonial French slave holders resulting in the culture of Voodoo. The faith is centered on community participation lead by a priest or priestess. As a result of the origin of the faith, and the importance of oral tradition, the faith lacks any set doctrine and instead relies almost entirely on the direct independent leadership of the priests and priestesses. Adherents seek aid and support when they need it in addition to an all around successful and safe life. By serving their gods through sacrifice and respect, they expect that their gods will in turn serve them and sustain them during the difficult times and allow them to prosper.

II. Scope and Purpose of System

Voodoo is a combination of beliefs and actions of African beginnings which have been mixed with Catholic practices. It is the religion of the majority of the peasants of the African American republic of Haiti.[i] Those who observe and follow the faith ask for many blessings: cures/good health, fulfillment of wishes, and a prosperous life. It is a religion practiced by autonomous cults with their own traditions. There is no set voodoo liturgy or doctrine for which priests or priestesses all conform, and is therefore rich in oral tradition. The language of the faith is Creole. Creole is a combination of French vocabulary and African sounds and grammar and in that sense reflects the combination of French Catholicism and African tribal faiths from which Voodoo stems.

III. Authority Structure

a. Sources and Criteria of Valid Knowledge

In Voodoo authority resides in the figures of the priest and priestess. The most respected and authoritative priests are those who possess the greatest second sight.[ii] The ability to anticipate who would come to seek aid or question, and indeed even to answer a question before it has been asked, earns such figures much respect.

Voodoo ceremonies take place at night. The priest stands at the altar that houses a snake. After several preparatory ceremonies, all of the faithful come to the altar in order of stature within the community and tell the snake of their wishes. The priestess then climbs onto the altar and the god enters her and speaks from the mouth of the priest or priestess. Everyone then gives an offering to the snake and a goat is sacrificed. The blood of the goat is collected and the blood is placed on the lips of all present as a vow not to speak of anything that has transpired and die if they do or kill one who might attempt to reveal the secret nature of the ceremony.[iii]

The gods may also communicate with the believers through dreams. The priests also have the ability to call the gods down into jars and into the presence of those wish to speak with them. Gods and spirits also possess the ability to take a material form and reveal themselves without the use of another’s body.

The accumulation of this knowledge comes from strength of the oral tradition passed down from generation to generation as well as first hand observation of the participants.

b. Methods of Inquiry

Many priests learn their trade directly as apprentices. During this time they observe their master’s actions as well as wait on him for all of his or her needs.[iv] This period can last months or years depending on the master who has chosen to take them on as the apprentice works his way through the hierarchy of steps needed to become a full priest. This time period is looked back upon with an air of pride with respect to their master. It is the master who has instructed the priest and made them who they are. It is in this sense that a mentor is held in utmost respect for the success of the individual. Those who claim to have been taught directly by the gods themselves are often looked down upon and it is assumed that they were not able to find a master to take them on.[v] A young priest or priestess may demonstrate proof of knowledge by not only actively taking part in the rituals, but by fulfilling his or her role in leading the rituals. A young priest or priestess also proves his or her knowledge and devotion through demonstration. If the priest as a leader is able to invoke the correct god for a certain situation or address a “lay person’s” concerns by yielding the desired results either physically or mentally, then he has proved his worth.

The priest’s duties are not merely restricted to serving the congregation, but more importantly serving the loa as a representation of the deity to the congregation. Voodoo services can occur for any number of reasons: “to honor a loa on the day of the equivalent Catholic saint, or to mark the anniversary of an initiation, or to celebrate the postfuneral rites of an ancestor.” [vi] The typical service begins with an invocation in which an esteemed member of the congregation leads the rest of the congregation in the Lord’s Prayer, the “Hail Mary”, the Credo, and the Confiteor in French accompanied by signs of the cross and genuflections in order to pay homage to God and the Saints. Following these prayers the congregants shift to Creole and the intensity of the service begins to increase.[vii] The priest then begins to invite the loa through a combination of ritual song and dance in order to bring about a particular god to the service. The choices of song and dance are particularly important and often time the loa will teach and demand new songs and dances once they have begun “riding” the priest or priestess.[viii] The loa’s “mounting” of the priest begins with small tremors of the priest’s body and increase to full out body convulsions as the loa takes it’s place.[ix] The loa is not only there to serve the congregation with aid, but also to be served by the congregation and dine on the items presented as sacrifice. Following the service, the one who has been mounted characteristically remembers nothing of what occurred during the service. For the ridden that time is a time of empty sleep. It is considered bad luck to talk to the ridden about what actions transpired during the service. If messages must be conveyed to the horse (the one who conveys the loa’s message) from the loa it must be done discretely and vaguely.[x]

An apprenticeship is common to many faiths and for Catholicism as well as Christianity in general. Younger members of the clergy usually hold assistant positions under heads of congregations until they are old enough and have enough experience to take on their own congregation. However, unlike voodoo this occurs after a period of intense, regimented study at seminary programs. While seminary programs focus on practical uses in giving advice and aiding others through the teachings of Christ, they also focus heavily on the study of doctrine and interpretation of scripture. This is not to say that the apprenticeship of a voodoo priest does not require study, quite the contrary. Instead, the apprentice’s study is of a more “hands-on,” practical nature as a result of the role of the voodoo priest or priestess as opposed to the institutional theological study of Christians.

c. Institutions and Profession Structure

Voodoo as an institution combines the practice, preservation, and teaching of knowledge all into one. All three are accomplished as a result of the personal apprenticeship of a priest or priestess and passed on from master to student through oral tradition. There is no central authority in the form of a “church” or set of doctrine. The authority of the priest or priestess comes from respect within the community. Authority is also achieved through the hierarchy of apprenticeships. A priest or a priestess is judged not only on their own action, but also the actions of the priest or priestess who took them on as an apprentice. The greater the knowledge and fame of the priest, the more respect his apprentices will earn. In effect, one’s authority and respect comes from one’s own actions and knowledge but also from the “family tree” that makes up one’s descent from one’s master.[xi] The priest or priestess is held to the standards of the community. If the community is satisfied with the priest’s leadership in service and the way the priest addresses individual’s needs within the community then they are considered adequate and helpful to the community as a whole. In this manner, the priest or priestess is a highly respected member of the community. In some cases the priest or priestess is regarded as the most respected member of the community and can even be a spokesperson for or to the community for diplomatic and governmental needs.[xii]

IV. History

Voodoo began when the first groups of African slaves were brought to Saint Dominique during the late 1600’s.[xiii] Most of the slaves came from the densely populated Gulf of Benin or the “Slave Coast.”[xiv] The word Voodoo itself comes from the Fon languages of Africa and means ‘a god’, ‘a spirit’, or ‘a sacred object.’[xv] The most important Voodoo gods were brought across from Africa and some still have shrines in Africa. However, the majority of Voodoo practices are traced back to the Dahomean tribes. The traditions and practices were transferred to Haiti by priests and participants themselves who were taken as slaves. In the eyes of the French the slaves were seen as Christians and slave owners were urged to baptize their slaves and educate them in the ways of Christ. This was suggested as moral justification for slavery as a conversion process. As is to be expected, there was no such education. Slaves were dotted with holy water as part of a baptismal process and owners kept priests away for fear of them questioning the morals of their practice.[xvi] Instead, the blending of Catholicism and the native religion of the slaves occurred through other channels. Slaves learned through house slaves. Those who worked in the plantation home also attended mass and participated in nightly prayers with the family. Freedmen as well were also taught by rogue monks and other religious authorities. Perhaps the best example of the blending took place within the church as runaway slaves took sanctuary and voodoo thrived in regions that lacked a strong Christian basis. Within the church, the slaves mixed the holy tools and “relics” of Catholicism with their own representations of gods. In so doing, the slaves began to preach to each other, thus creating their own faith.[xvii] In most respects there was no real mixture of the two faiths. Voodooists really only used the saints as visual representations of their own gods.[xviii] A specific detail or resemblance of a picture of a saint is all that is need to correspond to a particular loa. “For instance the snakes chased out of Ireland, which are seen at the feet of St Patrick, have suggested a link between him and Damballah-wedo, the snake-god.”[xix]

As a result of the French Revolution and the successful slave revolt on St. Dominique, African influence upon voodoo greatly decreased. Its religious practices were also less regulated and voodoo developed independently. In fact, some evidence suggests the slaves’ faith in voodoo added to their energy and aided in the battles for independence.[xx] The former slave was now a peasant, who in all likelihood worked the land and turned even further toward the Voodoo faith to aid them in their new life.[xxi]

Modernity’s greatest effect on Voodoo is tourism. Tourists seek out the mythical goriness and atrocities of Voodoo ceremonies in New Orleans and Haiti. The setup of “Voodoo shows” and “tours” by Voodoo’s own priests has served to destroy the faith and push away the believers in exchange for the monetary advancement of those providing the spectacle.[xxii] The fraudulent selling of the faith has left some leaders corrupt and many followers disenchanted when compared to the strength that had existed in the past.

V. Representative Examples of Argumentation

The Haitian Voudoun does not think of his faith as many outsiders would. Followers do not “believe” in their supreme god, loa. They serve the many iterations of the loa.[xxiii] The follower appreciates the mysteries of his faith and the knowledge and power of his leaders, as they are harnessed and ridden by the gods. He serves the gods and in return the appropriate gods will serve him in aiding him when he is in need, no matter what the affair. While aspects of Voodooism have struggled with respects to curiosities of modernity, the ability to adapt to the needs of the followers has been a strength. The adaptation of gods to fit new needs has accompanied modernity and also served to maintain the working relationship between efficient gods serving needy followers who give thanks and serve god in return.[xxiv] While the supreme god is recognized as so, there are times when secondary gods play a more vital, direct role. A god of fertilization, of harvest, marriage, etc. may play a more important role at various times of the year, but in the larger scheme always yields to the supreme god. In this sense, it seems to reflect the worship of saints within the Catholic Church.[xxv]

VI. Suggested Position in Comparative Scales

a. Relative emphasis on traditional authority vs. the testimony of experience

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

– Score of 5 – Emphasis is highly placed on traditional authority as teachings of the priests and priestess are passed down directly through authoritative oral tradition, but the experience of the participants as well the observers who make up the followers are equally as important

b. Relative centralization of authority vs. decentralization (individual inquiry)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

– Score of 10 – Voodoo seems to have no specific universal centralization of authority. Nor does it have a specific canon or scriptures.

c. Relative emphasis on invisible realities vs. material earthly ones

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

– Score of 6 – While Voodoo places a heavy emphasis on invisible realities; I feel that the emphasis on material and earthly realities is a little bit greater with regard to the confirmation of the follower

d. Mainly spiritual or moral objectives vs. pragmatic aims

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

– Score of 8 – While Voodoo does have some spiritual objectives; I feel that most of the objectives are heavily oriented towards pragmatic if not tangible aims

e. Most power or agency reserved for a divine being vs. realizable individuals

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

– Score of 3 – While it is recognized that the priests hold a great power in leading the services and serving as conduits to the gods, I feel that it is the belief that the true power comes from the gods themselves.

Annotated Bibliography

I. Primary Sources

Deren, Maya. 1970. Divine Horsemen The Living Gods of Haiti. New York:

McPherson & Company

This text is considered an authority by many scholars. It provided a big picture as well as intimate details as a result of Deren’s direct experience.

Metraux, Alfred. 1959. Voodoo in Haiti. New York: Oxford University Press.

This text is highly sited in other scholarly works. The text provided much information on almost every facet of Voodooism, including many direct observations.

II. Secondary Sources

Davis, Darien J. 1995. Slavery and Beyond. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly

Resources Inc.

While not entirely focused on Haitian Voodoo, the parts that were provided interesting opinions as well as factual knowledge

Murphy, Joseph M. 1994. Working the Spirit. Boston: Beacon Press.

While only a portion of the text is focused on Haitian Voodoo, that portion provides a good back drop for study as well as widely scoping array of topics.